King of Commerce, Yeonsan-gun Ch.33
Spending Money Feels Good
While the residents of Hamyang were fighting off pirates in the south and new fortifications were being completed in the north to mirror Sejong the Great’s conquests, the rest of Joseon experienced another year of abundance.
King Kyung-sik joked, “Is this because I am such a virtuous ruler?” His jest momentarily chilled the court’s atmosphere, but the bumper crop was undeniably good news. Historically, this period in Joseon also enjoyed good harvests, though not exceptionally bountiful. Proposals to build fortifications and warehouses emerged during this time, but poverty prevented their realization.
With rice prices dropping, farmers worried, but landless peasants, who relied on government labor assignments, benefited as lower food costs allowed them to survive on minimal wages. The government also found it advantageous as it reduced the cost of feeding its laborers.
Historically, Joseon’s grand plans at this time were limited to building a few new grain depots, a task Kyung-sik had already completed in his first year. With taxes now providing a steady income of at least 15 million jeon, the government had the means to embark on various projects.
Even the senior officials, who had once been weary and cynical, began to dream of possibilities.
Small Projects for Farmers
Before launching any grandiose schemes, Kyung-sik focused on smaller initiatives to improve the lives of the majority of Joseon’s people—the farmers.
Faced with the sudden exposure to a market economy, farmers now found that even a bountiful harvest could be distressing. In a bad year, when rice prices soared, they could expect to make some profit, but most households cultivated less than one jeongbo of land, leaving them vulnerable to starvation during famines.
Kyung-sik addressed these issues both institutionally and technologically to boost farmers’ incomes.
1. The Large Sickle
Kyung-sik introduced the large sickle used in the West, manufactured by the Gunpowder Office, and demonstrated its use at the royal fields where the king himself symbolically engaged in farming activities. Although the sickle was introduced late in the harvest season of September, officials recognized the need for agricultural innovation and praised its effectiveness. Many officials, especially those with fields in Gyeonggi Province, immediately purchased the new sickles from the Gunpowder Office.
2. The Rice Sack Frame
When Kyung-sik mentioned the word “gama” (rice sack), the officials were confused. He realized that Joseon had not yet adopted the woven straw sacks called “gamasu” (かます) from Japan, introduced during the Japanese colonial period, a fact unknown to him.
At this time, Joseon used five- or seven-strand sacks, which easily tore and spilled their contents, wasting more straw than necessary. The frequent inspections at grain depots to check for sand or spoiled grain led to the rapid wear and tear of these sacks.
Kyung-sik developed a new frame with twenty-five strands, calling it the “rice sack frame.” He had seen a similar frame in a folk museum, and its simple structure made it easy to replicate. He decided to produce a few hundred sample frames for distribution to local government offices, hoping that skilled craftsmen could quickly imitate them.
To encourage farmers to adopt this new method, the government bought these rice sacks from farmers as a side job at local offices and grain depots.
3. The Winnowing Fan (Hulte)
Kyung-sik had assumed that the winnowing fan, a tool he had seen in a folk museum, was already in use in Joseon. Instead, he found farmers still using flails for threshing, a method that remained standard worldwide until recent times.
Wondering when and where the winnowing fan was invented and introduced to Joseon, Kyung-sik decided to take matters into his own hands. Using the iron craftsmen previously employed in armor making, they designed the head of the fan, resembling a comb, and could produce hundreds each day.
This invention was well-received by both the officials and the farmers, who eagerly bought the winnowing fans to expedite their post-harvest threshing.
Kyung-sik considered researching foot-operated threshing machines but decided to postpone it, as the simple winnowing fan sufficed for now.
4. Introducing Futures Contracts
The first futures trading began in 1697 at the Dojima Rice Market in Osaka, Japan. While introducing this concept 200 years early, Kyung-sik believed it feasible given that the people were already accustomed to auction-based grain trading at various grain depots.
Futures contracts, though convenient and aligned with current rice prices publicly available at grain depots, inevitably led to speculation. However, Kyung-sik thought the existing regulatory structure might provide sufficient oversight to mitigate excessive speculation.
The grain depots functioned as semi-open markets, requiring different types of identification for traders.
- For Farmers: Registered household heads who paid taxes could bring their grains to the grain depot for sale.
- For Merchants: Those with official trading licenses could trade goods at designated markets in Pyongyang or on the Han River.
- For Local Officials: Those appointed as village or township heads with special permits could sell regional specialties at auction.
- For Seoul Traders: Merchants organized into guilds and registered could trade at city markets or open shops.
- For Government Agencies: All market transactions were exempt from fees.
While nearly all merchants received trading permits and registrations, maintaining the appearance of openness, the market still relied on the feudal privileges of officially sanctioned traders.
Given this structure, Kyung-sik was somewhat reassured that mid-aged men, idle after the harvest, wouldn’t crowd the grain depots all day, obsessing over rice prices.
“Well, you can’t make an omelet without breaking a few eggs. Let’s prepare for the next lean season,” Kyung-sik mused.
Feeling confident after two years of relative success, he tackled previously postponed judicial matters.
He instructed the Six Ministries and the State Council to prepare forms for futures contracts, issue certificates, guarantee transactions at the grain depots, and draft related laws. He also planned to appoint officials to oversee these transactions.
“Many of the local magistrates lack the skills to handle such complex litigation. What should we do about this?” asked one official.
“Initially, educate our legal officers about futures trading and dispatch them as needed. Eventually, we should establish a dedicated branch within the Inspectorate General to handle commercial disputes and deploy them nationwide. Recommend newly appointed officials with strong legal expertise.”
5. Grain Procurement System
Kyung-sik also decided to establish a formal grain procurement system, building on the one-time emergency purchases made during the previous New Deal initiative. This time, he aimed for a long-term, institutionalized approach by signing contracts with poor farmers.
“We haven’t conducted a cadastral survey recently. Shouldn’t we prepare new land registers for this procurement?” asked the Finance Minister, Lee Se-jwa.
“Your suggestion is sound. Let’s conduct a nationwide cadastral survey next year,” Kyung-sik agreed.
Lee Se-jwa immediately felt the cold stares of his colleagues, indicating they dreaded the administrative burden of his proposal.
Deciding on New Budget Allocations
The main issue now was deciding how to allocate the remaining budget. The ministers marveled at the situation where government spending directly benefited the populace—a concept foreign to their experiences of perpetual scarcity.
Moved by the prospect of initiating new projects after years of fiscal constraints, the ministers shed tears of joy.
As Kyung-sik pondered the next expenditure, Choi Bu eagerly approached, exclaiming, “Your Majesty! How about waterwheels?”
Kyung-sik, who hadn’t even mentioned waterwheels, began to wonder if Choi Bu was haunted by a ghost obsessed with waterwheels.
Choi Bu indeed seemed like a man who, in an alternate history, might have died lamenting his inability to build waterwheels.
“Well… fine. I’ll give you a place in the Gunpowder Office to develop new types of waterwheels. With various kinds, we can significantly reduce labor for the people.”
Choi Bu, thrilled, entered the Gunpowder Office to pursue his passion.
The discussion about waterwheels reminded the ministers of the recent summer project.
“Given the limited time for expanding the Mapo Palace, it’s best to prioritize building more ice storage rooms this year,” one suggested.
“Agreed. We should also focus on clearing old buildings at the Mapo site and preparing a larger area for future expansion,” added another.
With the growth of Seoul’s population and trade, Mapo’s natural village structure could no longer handle the increasing logistics. While Yongsan and Seogang shared some of the burden, a more deliberate plan for an urban harbor was needed.
Kyung-sik decided to allocate ample space for a new city and planned to incorporate star fort designs into its walls. Although he considered strengthening the walls of Hanyang with similar designs, the terrain made it challenging.
Defense Minister Seong Jun inquired, “Why have you ordered us to dig moat lines and build star-shaped forts for our new forts since last year? What is the reasoning behind this unprecedented construction method?”
Lacking in-depth military knowledge, Kyung-sik had often resorted to “just follow orders” explanations, leading to much confusion over his “future knowledge cheat codes.”
Kyung-sik’s understanding of star forts came from casual viewing on YouTube, some information from Wikipedia, and pictures of star-shaped tourist attractions like Goryokaku and Bourtange.
Despite his limited knowledge, Kyung-sik believed he grasped the core principles and instructed the construction.
Realizing the need for practical training, he decided that it was time for a large-scale military exercise, especially with autumn approaching.
Reviving and Modernizing Military Drills
Kyung-sik planned a “Kangmu,” a royal hunt that doubled as military training. Although hunting served as effective military training in the past, this tradition had faded since King Seongjong’s reign, coinciding with the beginning of Joseon’s military decline.
The art of conducting a “Kangmu” had nearly vanished, with no officials remaining who had practical experience, and the written records in the “National Five Rites” being the only guide.
Furthermore, Kyung-sik’s idea of a Kangmu diverged from traditional hunting.
“Training is real combat! This Kangmu will not be about hunting but will involve large-scale military maneuvers, including a simulated siege with soldiers forming ranks and conducting assaults!”
Having only served as a simple soldier in the Korean military, Kyung-sik dramatically declared his vision.
Upon calculating the number of troops available, the Ministry of War found the numbers somewhat lacking.
“Excluding the 3,000 troops in Hamgyeong for the expedition and 2,000 guarding the northern borders in Pyeongan, we can muster about 8,000 troops,” reported an official.
“Oh, right. I disbanded most of the infantry,” Kyung-sik realized.
Joseon’s theoretical military strength was 100,000, with most serving as rotation-based conscripts, resulting in only 13,000 active soldiers at any given time. Most of these were poorly equipped and primarily used for labor rather than combat.
Now, construction labor was contracted out, and even conscripts received a small monthly wage of 10 jeon, leading to significant costs. Consequently, the infantry was largely disbanded, and the army was restructured around professional soldiers.
However, converting all soldiers into full-time professional troops proved too costly. Before the reforms, Joseon maintained about 1,000 full-time soldiers in Seoul and 2,000 in the frontier, while the total strength of the “Gapsa” (elite soldiers) reached 15,000, rotating every six months.
To maintain 15,000 Gapsa on full-time duty with salaries would bankrupt Joseon. Only the 3,000 soldiers in the Frontier Defense Office could be paid through their earnings from trade monopolies.
Kyung-sik considered blending the professional and rotation-based systems, akin to the hybrid system employed by the later Joseon era’s Five Army Commands.
He introduced the “long-term salary Gapsa,” consisting of 5,000 soldiers who would serve longer terms with pay, while the remaining troops continued under the traditional rotation system.
Thus, with the 5,000 full-time Gapsa, 2,000 rotating Gapsa, and 1,000 palace guards, Joseon maintained a standing force of about 8,000 elite troops, complemented by about 6,000 auxiliary troops restructured from previously conscripted cavalry now serving as infantry.
In total, Joseon’s standing army comprised about 15,000 troops, with reserves totaling around 45,000, offering a significant improvement in quality over previous forces.
“Soldiers must be elite, not merely numerous. To reduce the burden on the populace, we have cut down the number of conscripts, and now we must focus on enhancing their quality. Summon all active-duty soldiers,” Kyung-sik ordered.
Preparing for the Siege Drill
The exercise was planned at the newly constructed star fortification north of Seoul (modern-day Uijeongbu).
Despite its reputation for corruption and financial shortfalls, Joseon’s highly centralized bureaucracy efficiently mobilized the troops, gathering them within 20 days.
However, they faced a shortage of armor. Specifically, there weren’t enough iron armors. The 3,000 newly forged armors had been sent to the frontier troops, leaving the Gunpowder Office with no stock.
Fortunately, some dedicated Gapsa soldiers managed to bring their well-preserved armors, allowing a portion of the elite troops to be properly equipped.
The rest had to settle for the newly produced paper armors. Approximately 10,000 paper armors had been made, and they were issued to the remaining soldiers.
Weapons, on the other hand, were adequately supplied. Iron armor production was halted due to its heavy resource consumption, but weapon manufacturing continued, albeit at a reduced pace.
However, there was still a significant shortage of rifles. Even with optimized production, the Gunpowder Office struggled to produce ten rifles per day. These early rifles, lacking even rifling in their barrels, were crucial for the frontier, making them unavailable for the exercise.
Moreover, with the failed attempt to acquire horn tips from Ming, bow production also stalled.
But abandoning long-range weapons was not an option for Joseon, known for its prowess with such armaments.
To bridge this gap, Kyung-sik introduced steel crossbows with metallic stocks.
Training with the Crossbows
“Ready! Fire!”
The soldiers fired their crossbows, the bolts piercing targets with sharp, crackling sounds.
Early firearms and traditional bows, though both ranged weapons, had differing operational methods. Crossbows, positioned between these two, could be adapted to tactics used for both.
Although crossbows were quickly rendered obsolete by firearms, they still served as an effective transitional weapon for Joseon, currently in such a transitional phase.
“With the rifle stocks attached to the crossbows, their accuracy rivals that of firearms. Training with crossbows will prepare our soldiers for using rifles once they become available in sufficient numbers,” explained a military official.
While not as effective as actual rifle training, the crossbows, modified with rifle-like stocks, offered a comparable training experience, fulfilling Kyung-sik and the military’s expectations.
Crafting the crossbows from high-quality spring steel significantly increased their power, making them capable of piercing the paper armors with ease.
However, overly powerful crossbows proved difficult to reload, a primary reason they were eventually outclassed by firearms. To address this, reloading aids like stirrups and goatsfoot levers were provided, and the crossbows’ power was standardized for consistent performance.
Evolving Military Tactics
Joseon’s current military doctrine primarily relied on scattered formations to counter the northern tribes, a tactic Kyung-sik, with his limited knowledge of military history, instinctively opposed.
His Western-centric perspective favored tight formations like the Tercio or linear formations, leading to resistance from the military officials.
“Our country’s terrain is mountainous and forested, with few open plains. The areas where northern tribes invade are similarly rugged. Such formations are impractical,” they argued.
Kyung-sik, a military novice, only familiar with pre-modern battles through strategy games, hesitated but recalled a critical flaw in the current scattered formations.
“Yet, if our troops are spread out, they cannot support each other and must fight independently. Are our soldiers capable of such autonomous combat?” he countered.
The undeniable truth that “our army lacks the skill” convinced the officials of the need for tighter formations.
Kyung-sik proposed adding signals to facilitate switching between scattered and tight formations during battle.
He also aimed to strengthen command and control, emphasizing disciplined firing and maintaining formations. He had heard somewhere that Joseon soldiers lost during the Manchu invasions due to a lack of coordinated volleys and blamed the old reward system based on severed heads from melee combat.
“We should change the regulations to punish unauthorized movements and disorderly conduct more severely than failing to capture heads. Rewards should focus on maintaining formations and following orders.”
However, Kyung-sik’s ignorance became evident again.
“We already execute those who disobey orders or move without command. How could we punish them more harshly?”
“What?”
Kyung-sik reviewed Joseon’s military regulations for the first time and was astounded by their severity.
Indeed, the military code mandated execution for any breach of command. Orders had to be followed strictly, communicated through signals, drums, and gongs. Ignoring a command, even a direct one from the emperor, warranted execution.
The extensive military code detailed harsh punishments for every imaginable offense, all ending with “execution.”
He had heard that pre-modern armies maintained brutal discipline to prevent their formations from breaking under fire, and it was true.
As a modern man, Kyung-sik wished to lighten these penalties but lacked a clear plan to reform the code.
Realizing that the strict discipline enabled the success of formations like the Tercio despite cannon fire, he deferred changes to the military law.
The soldiers received new orders for disciplined firing and switching between tight and scattered formations.
Trained primarily for scattered formations and skirmish tactics, the elite troops quickly adapted to the simpler, more straightforward tight formations.
“Are the soldiers equipped with armor and weapons, and have they completed their training and organization?” Kyung-sik asked.
“Yes, Your Majesty. We have prepared for the siege drill as per your instructions,” an official confirmed.
“Excellent! Let’s begin. The defending troops will enter the fort, raise the bridge, and close the gates. The attacking troops, move your formations closer to the fort!”
While similar training exercises existed globally, Kyung-sik’s introduction of a simulated siege was a novel and ambitious approach for Joseon, where such practical combat training had been long neglected.
Notes:
Star Fort Designs in East Asia: The concept of star forts, with their distinctive polygonal shapes, is a Western idea. In East Asian art, stars were often depicted as simple circles or dots. When star fort designs were introduced, they were often compared to flower petals. This cultural interpretation is reflected in the term “Flower Banner” used by the Chinese to describe the Citibank logo when it first entered Shanghai, mistaking the stars on the American flag for flowers.
Hybrid Military System in Late Joseon: Joseon later adopted a mixed system of conscription and professional soldiers, similar to what Kyung-sik implemented. The Five Army Commands (Ogunyeong) in the late Joseon period operated with a combination of full-time professional soldiers and rotating conscripts. This structure maintained about 20,000 to 25,000 standing troops. In the novel, Kyung-sik’s reformed military has fewer soldiers but pays them significantly more, leading to financial constraints despite better training and equipment.
Joseon’s Military Regulations: The described military code comes from the Gyuchuk Jinsul (癸丑陣說), a comprehensive military manual from the reign of King Sejong. It detailed the strict discipline required for military formations, including execution for disobeying orders, highlighting the extreme rigor of pre-modern military discipline.
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