King of Commerce, Yeonsan-gun Ch.32
The Conqueror (Jin-gyuk-ui Sejong)
Prelude to Northern Conquest
While the people of Hamyang navigated the great waters of the Nam River, frost was already setting in the northern regions.
Assigned as the new “Great Commander of Border Defense,” Yun Pil-sang felt as if he was being punished by the king or ostracized by his fellow meritorious ministers. Once content at home, managing his assets after being dismissed from office thanks to Yun Eun-ro's scandal, Yun Pil-sang was summoned back for a seemingly logical reason by Joseon standards.
“Pyongyang Grand Prince Yun Pil-sang has served our nation with merit for many years. It's a waste to leave such a talented man unused; he should be reinstated,” the ministers advised.
At first, the king was hesitant: “But Yun Pil-sang is corrupt, isn't he?”
Though overshadowed by Yun Eun-ro’s blatant financial crimes, Yun Pil-sang also had a reputation for avarice. He had survived dismissal and continued to engage in speculative trading of rice and other commodities. When King Kyung-sik introduced new financial instruments like government bonds and stocks, Yun Pil-sang was always among the first to invest.
The ministers insisted, “Yun Pil-sang generously contributed to the establishment of the Office of Border Defense. He also played a significant role in the past campaigns against the Jianzhou Jurchens. He could be valuable in the upcoming northern expedition.”
Reluctantly, the king agreed. When summoned, Yun Pil-sang protested, even questioning his fellow ministers who nominated him.
“But I've only been to the Pyeongan province, not Hamgyeong! How can I lead this?”
The king's response was blunt: “Stop talking and go.”
In the original timeline, Yun Pil-sang had opposed King Yeonsangun’s northern campaigns. However, in Kyung-sik's Joseon, he eagerly purchased shares in the Border Defense Office after seeing the prospectus. Although he didn’t fully understand the concept of funding a new administrative body through shares, he trusted the king’s initiatives.
Moreover, the Border Defense Office promised to monopolize the trade of ginseng and furs with the border tribes, which was a surefire way to make money. So, he had heavily invested, hoping for returns. Now, he found himself assigned the task of actually managing this military endeavor.
In Joseon, an official post often meant obligatory service. Despite his age, Yun Pil-sang had to brace himself for the harsh northern climate, potentially facing death in the frontier.
Joseon's appointment practices were practical: “You did something similar before, so you can handle this.” This approach also echoed modern military practices in Korea.
King Kyung-sik’s motivation for accepting this proposal was straightforward: he was tired of seeing Yun Pil-sang live off his pension. The reform of land taxes had introduced a sort of pension system in Joseon, where land grants to meritorious subjects were replaced by regular payments of paper currency. Yun Pil-sang, despite being dismissed, received over 1,000 jeon annually, which irked the king.
Therefore, the king accepted the ministers' proposal to send Yun Pil-sang to the north as the commander, effectively cutting his easy pension. The commander’s pay would be based on the success of the Border Defense Office, aligning with Kyung-sik's view that CEOs should earn based on their company's performance. Given Joseon’s recent history of sporadic and unreliable salary payments, this approach faced little opposition.
The Temptation of Wealth
Yun Pil-sang, a master of Joseon’s speculative trade, saw the potential to enrich himself when he received the budget directives for the Border Defense Office. Given that a significant portion of this budget came from the summer’s share subscriptions, he calculated that just under 10% of it was his own investment.
True to the cunning nature of the era, he quickly devised ways to embezzle funds. He considered overpaying for supplies through merchants he had connections with and presenting inflated invoices for reimbursement.
However, his plans were soon thwarted.
“Yun Pil-sang, that corrupt official, is coming as our commander? He’ll surely siphon off the soldiers’ pay!”
“He’ll likely embezzle from the abundant budget of the Border Defense Office!”
The local officials at Gilju’s Treasury Office, who were supposed to handle the office’s finances, were primarily former censorate members exiled for opposing the king. They knew all too well about bureaucratic corruption, having experienced it firsthand before being exiled by the king to the far reaches of the northeast.
Once ineffective bureaucrats, these former censors had transformed into competent officials through their harsh experiences in Gilju. Their survival and transformation reinforced the adage, “What doesn’t kill you makes you stronger.”
“Funds for hiring laborers? Don’t worry, we’ll gather the local people at a low cost. We’ll handle the expenses from the Defense Office’s budget.”
“Steel? We’re already sourcing it cheaply from Ulsan. Why should you buy it privately from merchants?”
“Why purchase tools from others when the Military Training Command has recently produced superior ones?”
In modern terms, the Treasury Office was supposed to release funds based on the central government’s directives. However, due to the limitations in real-time communication and local price fluctuations, local offices had the authority to review and adjust the central directives. Often, they allocated less than the requested amount to avoid triggering audits. This practice, while technically overstepping their authority, was standard.
Yun Pil-sang was tempted by a similar thought that had crossed King Kyung-sik’s mind when dealing with the censors: “Should I just wipe them all out?” With 3,000 armored troops, he could easily crush any opposition.
Of course, doing so would be considered a blatant act of treason, leading to his execution and the ruin of his clan. Remembering the fate of his brother Yun Eun-ro, Yun Pil-sang swallowed his frustration and decided to comply.
After all, the primary aim of the Border Defense Office was to monopolize the ginseng and fur trade, a venture he had heavily invested in. He could still profit if he focused on his actual duties.
Establishing Control
The first task after deploying the armored troops was to establish a fort in the villages of the Seongjeo Jurchens north of the Tumen River. Unlike the violent clashes during King Sejong’s time when expanding the four forts and six posts, there was little resistance.
This was because the Seongjeo Jurchens had already been nominally under Joseon’s influence. Pre-modern borders were more ambiguous than modern ones. Although the Jurchen villages beyond the Tumen River were not officially governed by Joseon, they paid tribute and followed Joseon’s laws.
During the late reign of King Seongjong, the laughable military campaign against Nima and Udige (Oljeokhap) resulted in fewer than ten casualties. However, most of the frightened Udige did not return to the Joseon border areas. Lately, with Joseon’s military weakening, the Seongjeo Jurchens had occasionally plundered Joseon.
By this time, the Seongjeo Jurchen villages around the Tumen River had grown into sizable communities with populations in the tens of thousands. Contrary to the common stereotype of Jurchens as hunters, many had transitioned into agrarian societies under Joseon’s influence, trading furs for oxen and iron.
In contrast, the people in the six forts area grew poorer, losing their oxen and iron to the Jurchens as tribute, which further impoverished them. As these fort regions, meant to control the Jurchens, weakened economically, the Jurchens grew stronger, eventually leading to their defection.
During King Yeonsangun’s reign in the original timeline, the increase in tribute demands deepened the poverty in the Hamgyeong province, which eventually led to significant discontent. In Kyung-sik’s reformed Joseon, the trajectory started to shift.
Newly established forts at present-day Hunchun, Yanbian, Kraskino, and Tumen were unique, featuring local marketplaces and auction houses, with their prices publicly posted. Furs and ginseng were exempt from taxes, encouraging trade. While only the Border Defense Office and the residents of the five Tumen River forts could sell furs and ginseng at these auctions, the system attracted merchants, ginseng hunters, trappers, and those hoping for a quick fortune.
Previously, the Tumen River area had been a typical pre-modern borderland where Jurchens and Joseon people lived side by side. However, with the establishment of these new forts and marketplaces, a large influx of outsiders joined the local population.
Usually, such a mix would cause issues, but this time, the locals of Hamgyeong province posed the primary challenge. Known for their resilience and combat skills, the Hamgyeong people thrived in the new environment, especially with access to new weaponry from the marketplace.
“Behold this spear from the Military Training Command! It’s forged to split rocks and pierce armor, lasting ten years without dulling!”
A recently educated local scoffed at the merchant's claim.
“What’s next, a shield that’s supposedly unbreakable by any spear?”
Though the joke was beyond the average intelligence of Hamgyeong residents, a few nearby who had some learning chuckled.
The merchant, unfazed, responded, “Oh, we don’t have shields, but this spear really does split rocks.” He then demonstrated by striking a stone the size of a child’s head, which shattered with a loud crack.
While a mason would recognize the stone as soft shale, the spectators at the marketplace were easily impressed. Even if the demonstration was somewhat staged, the steel from the command, refined in crucibles, was indeed the finest for the next 400 years.
The new military-grade weapons sold like hotcakes to the residents of the five forts.
The Shift in Power Dynamics
Traditionally, giving weapons to Joseon citizens was futile, as they often sold them for profit, sometimes even to enemies. Previously, the residents of the five forts would trade their iron for furs, only to submit these as tribute, spiraling into debt. Now, the dynamic had changed.
The residents realized that holding a blade to the Jurchens' throats and demanding furs was more profitable than trading iron for them. This wisdom, undocumented in economic texts, was a practical lesson from history that the Hamgyeong people naturally grasped.
The Jurchens remembered the terror of Sejong (literally meaning “the conqueror”) and the humiliation of being pushed across the Tumen River. Once impoverished by excessive tribute, the Hamgyeong residents, backed by armed troops mostly from their region, began to reclaim their dignity.
“What? You’re offering mere salt for these furs? Are you joking? One fur should be worth at least an ox. It’s you who needs the furs, isn’t it?”
When the Jurchens tried to haggle as they always had, the Joseon people burst into laughter instead of negotiating.
“Hahaha!”
“What’s so funny?”
“You still think we’re desperate for furs due to tribute demands, don’t you? We don’t have to cater to your ridiculous prices anymore.”
“You should be the ones fearing us now! Unless you want to be crushed by our troops!”
“Wait, let’s teach these fools a lesson. They don’t seem to understand the world has changed!”
This change in power dynamics resulted in frequent incidents where Joseon people beat Jurchens to take their furs. Such acts were only possible due to the unique resilience of Hamgyeong residents.
With the abolishment of tribute, the overinflated value of furs in the Tumen River area plummeted. Conversely, the lives of the residents in the five forts improved dramatically. The new marketplaces attracted merchants bringing southern goods that were rare in the north.
The economic benefits once enjoyed by the Jurchens through the fur trade now flowed to the five forts. The residents, bolstered by earnings from selling furs and paid construction labor, indulged in the luxuries of southern products.
“Wow, is this white rice? They say people in the south eat this every day?”
“Even there, only the wealthy can afford it. We’re really living the good life now!”
“I needed cotton for the winter, but with so many merchants selling it here, I won’t have to travel south.”
Yun Pil-sang, meanwhile, struggled to implement his strategy of stockpiling furs to sell later at higher prices in the capital. His frustration grew as the residents, lacking long-term financial acumen, sold their furs quickly to merchants, undermining his plans.
Managing Trade and Defense
The new markets in the northern forts allowed only the Defense Office and local residents to sell ginseng and furs. Yet, outsiders could legally sell their hunted ginseng and furs to the Defense Office by registering their catches.
“What are you Joseon people doing hunting here? Isn’t it against your law to cross the border?”
“What era are you talking about? This side of the Tumen River is part of Joseon now!”
This policy led to a surge in smuggling. Residents from southern Hamgyeong crossed the Tumen River, hunted furs, and avoided selling to the Defense Office, opting instead to trade illegally at markets in Gilju or other areas.
The reason was simple: while the Defense Office bought furs for 5 jeon each and auctioned them starting at 50 jeon, hunters found no sense in trading honestly with the office.
This smuggling thrived especially around Yeompo Fort (modern-day Kraskino), a hotspot for clandestine trade. Contrary to modern perceptions of smuggling as a back-alley operation, in this era, the most common smuggling was done via river or sea routes.
“Are we clear? No one’s following us?”
“Of course not. Did you bring the goods?”
These lines, straight out of a cliché smuggling scene, were part of a trade involving “white powder” — but not drugs. One side had brought white cotton, salt, and rice from the south, while the other traded in the prized northern ginseng and furs.
Despite how mundane the goods might seem, these items held significant value in the context of north-south trade. But just like in stories where characters prematurely declare victory, the smugglers faced consequences for their actions.
As they negotiated, they were ambushed by Jurchen war canoes filled with warriors. Despite appearances, these canoes were manned by the official Joseon naval forces, composed of locally appointed Jurchen captains. The Office’s army was well-funded and equipped, but the naval aspect had yet to receive similar support.
Contrary to the stereotype of Jurchens as purely land-based raiders, those near the East Sea had long been skilled pirates. Even without the comprehensive support enjoyed by the land forces, these local Jurchen naval officers were more than capable of disrupting the smugglers’ operations.
Consolidating Control
The Jurchens were no noble savages. Their strategy had always been to extort Joseon through raids, feigning submission to extract benefits, and then betraying agreements. However, Joseon’s deployment of a substantial military force, permanent fortifications, and reliable supply lines made such tactics less viable.
With 3,000 well-armed troops, a formidable force by Jurchen clan standards, and the ferocity of Hamgyeong’s residents now equipped with swords, the situation became dire for any Jurchen resistance.
Faced with sustained campaigns and overwhelming force, Jurchens were left with two choices: submit to Joseon or face annihilation. Many, already inclined toward submission or under Joseon influence, quickly aligned themselves with the new order. They released captured Joseon citizens, accepted local positions, cooperated with the soldiers, and traded furs with the Defense Office.
Moreover, longstanding rivalries among Jurchen clans erupted as those quicker to submit to Joseon attacked their slower or more rebellious neighbors.
Meanwhile, in the northern regions, Joseon’s approach seemed to mirror future Japanese tactics during their occupation of Manchuria. Officials operated under a flexible interpretation of their mandate, without explicit orders from either the court or Yun Pil-sang.
When the Sungjeo Jurchens reported the presence of the Udige, notorious for past raids and recent skirmishes with Joseon, General Hwang Hyeong (황형) took immediate action.
“Hwang General! Those are the Udige who raided Joseon and have been troubling us recently!”
“Indeed. Your Alta Tribe will be commended for guiding us. If we succeed, I’ll report your contribution to the court.”
Hwang Hyeong, acting without explicit orders, moved to engage the Udige. In theory, his duty included protecting the Jurchens under Joseon’s influence, but his real motivation was the lucrative spoils of war. He remembered from past campaigns that the Udige had amassed significant quantities of furs, and seizing these would fulfill the Defense Office’s trade goals.
“Thank you! But could we possibly receive those new muskets?”
Some Jurchens quickly recognized the value of Joseon’s new weaponry.
“You don’t even know how to make gunpowder. Prepare for battle and leave the largest house to me. Don’t set it on fire.”
As chaos spread across the northern regions within a few months, it seemed as if Joseon had returned to the era of King Sejong the Great. The seasoned soldiers of Joseon, now armed with advanced weaponry and battle-hardened under the rule of King Kyung-sik, decimated the Jurchen raiders.
Historical Notes
Population of the Sungjeo Jurchens: According to the expanded <Jeseung Bangryak> (1588), there were 289 Jurchen villages and 8,523 households around the five forts. Assuming 5-6 people per household, the population ranged from 42,000 to 51,000. However, the Jianzhou Jurchens had larger family structures, averaging 14 members per household, suggesting a population of around 120,000 in the late Joseon period. This data indicates Joseon’s ability to exert control over these Jurchens by this time. Source: Han, Sung-joo. (2014). The Successes and Failures of Joseon’s Border Policies: The Growth and Development of the Tumen River Region's Jurchen Tribes. Studies on Ming-Qing History, 42, 159-186.
Tribute Reforms of 1501: During Yeonsangun’s reign, the “Shinyu Gong-An” increased tribute demands to reflect economic realities, prepared during King Seongjong’s time. While often criticized as an oppressive tax increase, the need for reform was acknowledged even before Yeonsangun’s reign. Despite the hardships, no attempt was made to revert the increased tribute after King Jungjong’s coup, highlighting the practicality of the reform. In the reformed Joseon, similar changes are reflected in the transition to a predominantly land-based tax system. Source: So, Soon-gyu. (2019). The Direction of Tribute Reform and Characteristics of the 1501 Tribute Reform during Yeonsangun’s Reign. Journal of Korean History, 134, 123-164.
Jurchen Piracy and Naval Tactics: Historically, the East Sea Jurchens had strong maritime traditions and engaged in piracy, not only against Goryeo but also as far as Japan in the 11th century. While less active during the Mongol era, they resumed raiding with small, agile boats called “japisun” in the early Joseon period, culminating in more advanced maritime capabilities by the time of King Yeonsangun.
Jurchen Hoarding of Furs: Records from King Seongjong’s reign describe the Do-gol Udige keeping large quantities of furs at home. These villages, typically consisting of long, communal houses, practiced a form of early rice cultivation and exchanged rice for furs, indicating a significant level of agricultural development among the Jurchens of this era. Source: Kim, Soon-nam. (2009). The Oljeokhap (Udige) during King Seongjong’s Reign. Journal of Joseon Dynasty History, 49, 35-63.
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